Table 1 Overview of early-life dietary modifications and known molecular effects

Reduced nephron count

Energy restriction [6, 7], low-protein diet [16, 17, 19], high- or low-salt diet [89], maternal deficiencies in vitamin A [83], iron [84], or zinc [87]

Dysregulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)

Energy restriction [7], low-protein diet [18, 23,24,25,26,27, 30], high-fat diet [56], and high-salt diet [91,92,93, 95]

Altered expression and/or activity of renal sodium transporters

Low-protein diet [29, 31,32,33,34,35], high-fat diet [58, 60], and high-salt diet [93]

Oxidative stress

Energy restriction [6, 7], low-protein diet [29, 30, 38], high-fat diet [56, 58, 62, 65], and high-fructose diet [77]

Inflammation

Low-protein diet [30], high-fat diet [54, 65, 75, 76], Western-style diet (high fat/high fructose) [75, 76], and high-salt diet [93]

Dysregulated metabolic signaling, (e.g., AMPK, mTOR, or PPAR signaling)

Energy restriction [8, 9, 13,14,15], low-protein diet [41], and high-fat diet [64]

Mitochondrial dysfunction

Energy restriction [13,14,15], low-protein diet [40], and high-fat diet [63]

Endothelial dysfunction

Energy restriction [6, 7], low-protein diet [21], and high-fructose diet [77]

Altered short chain fatty acid profile/dysregulated gut microbiota

High-fat diet [61] and high-fructose diet [78]

Prostaglandin metabolism

Low-protein diet [39]