• Exclusively breastfed infants without vitamin D prophylaxis | |
• Infants, children, and adolescents with: | |
• Malabsorption or maldigestion disorders (e.g., celiac disease, Crohn’s disease, cystic fibrosis) | |
• Chronic inflammatory diseases (e.g., inflammatory bowel disease) | |
• Chronic kidney disease | |
• Chronic liver disease | |
• On permanent medication with substances that affect calcium or vitamin D metabolism (e.g., antiepileptic drugs, antiviral medication, fungicides, or high dose glucocorticoid therapy which inhibits intestinal calcium absorption and stimulates tubular calcium excretion) | |
• With very low sun exposure, for example, chronically immobilized children and adolescents | |
• With a migrant background (through the influence of pigmentation, nutrition, and sun exposure) |