Bacterial invasion | Pathogen | Host receptor/target | Mechanism | Internalization under hypoxia | Potential mechanism of hypoxia-induced changes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Zipper mechanism | Yersinia (invasin) | β1-integrin | Signaling from Rac1 to Arp2/3 [37] | ↓ [39] | Decreased receptor protein expression, reduced glycosylation and mislocalization in lipid rafts [39] |
Listeria (InlA) | E-cadherin | Ligase Hakai recruitment, clathrin endocytosis, and activation of Arp2/3 actin complex [53] | ↑ [32] | Elevated expression of barrier protection genes, more increased levels of E-cadherin [54] | |
Listeria (InlB) | Met (hepatocyte growth factor receptor) | Activation of Met and PI-3-kinase-mediated signaling [53] | ↑ [32] | Increased expression of growth factor receptors [55] | |
Trigger mechanism | Pseudomonas (ExoS) | Mammalian factor FXYD3 | Impairment of function of tight junctions [29] | ↓ [31] | Increased barrier protection, more stable adherens, and tight junctions [54] |
Shigella (IpaC) | Cdc42, Rac1, Rho | Activation of target, membrane ruffling [73] | ↓[30] | Cytoskeleton rearrangements hinder membrane ruffling [40] | |
Salmonella (SipA, SipC) | Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate PtdIns (4,5) P2 | Phosphoinositide signaling; membrane ruffling and formation of macropinosomes [41] | ↑ [32] | Changes in membrane lipid composition [40] |